how to improve their observation in research
As ethnographic research method, observation has a long history. The value of observation is that it allows the researcher to study people in their natural environment, to understand things from their perspective. The observation requires the researcher to spend considerable time on the field with the possibility of adopting various roles in order to obtain a more comprehensive understanding of the population under study. A variety of techniques are used to collect data. Group access and exit the field are two important factors necessary. Other areas of interest involve ethical issues and the validity and reliability. Until recently, few Library and Information Science (LIS) studies have included this method, however, the point is to win the favor of LIS researchers seek to better understand the role of information in the daily lives of peoples.
This paper therefore provides guidance for the effective use of observational methods. It explains the concept and types of observation methods of their merits and limitations for data collection. The problems of validity and reliability of observational methods are also discussed.
DEFINITION OF OBSERVER DE
Definitions of observation per se are difficult to find in the literature.
Gorman and Clayton define observation studies as those that "involves the systematic recording of observable phenomena or behavior in a natural environment" (2005, p.40)
Other authors define observation in the broader context of ethnography or the narrower of the observation of participation. What is consistent in definitions, however, is the need to study and understand people in their natural environment.
Chapman defines ethnography as a method that allows the researcher to get an inside view through observation and participation in social settings that reveal reality as experienced by members of these adjustments (1992, p3)
Becket and Geer define participant observation as either overt or covert activity in which the observer participates in the daily lives of the people under study … observing things that happen, listening to what is said, and interrogations, during a certain period of time (1970, p133). To observe people in their natural environment, a variety of functions for researchers can adopt.
The functions and how they have changed over time are described below. Where possible, examples of LIS studies.
Role of the researcher.
"
In his article on the paper on field observations, Gold (1958) attributes, and expanded the typology Buford Tunka four researchers can play roles in its efforts to study and develop relationships with insiders as complete observer, observer as participant, participant as observer to full participant. (p. 217).
More recently, others, such as Spradley (1980) and Adler (1994) have proposed conditions slightly different than Gold as discussed below. While Gorman and Clayton describes four gold in the papers as "a series of flexible positions a PF continuous participatory involvement (2005, p106), not everyone has to start as a complete observer. The adopted role depends on the problem to be studied, in the inside information available to be studied, and the researchers' prior knowledge or involvement in the world from within. When entering a new environment may require the researcher to adopt the role of complete observer, whereas studying a group in which he / she is already a member allows the researcher to adopt the role participant to complete. What is important is that it assumes that a suitable, fluid role that allows his / her intimate observer of daily life inside (Chapman, 1984, Carey, Mckechine and Mckerzie, 2001).
Non-participation
This paper describes Spradley (1980) does not imply any degree of participation insider. The researcher is not present at the scene but rather can "observer" in a completely different environment. Log Analysis Transaction (TLA) is an example of this type of observation. In his article TLA Davis described as "non-intrusive method for collecting data from a large number of individuals in order to understand the user's online behavior (2004, p327) with TLA focused on servers in the U.S. chemicals to determine how chemists at Cornell University information hubs.
In their study, Thompson (2003) uses a screen viewer to view, as another room the interaction of college students as test new library Web page. While this role has advantages and is effective in some studies LIS is not allowed any department in understanding the behavior of people in their own world.
Complete observer
Gold (1958) and complete observer and Gorman (2005 Clayton) unobtrusive observer play the same role as "passive" as described by Spradley (1980). In this paper, the researcher is present at the scene, but according to these three authors do not participate or interact with the inside information to any great extent. Its role is to listen only and observe, with this function of the children adopted to allow the researcher to be invisible, while at the same time, everywhere, to hear (Pearsall, 1970). One advantage of this feature is that researchers can be completely separated from the group. Detachment, however, is too great a disadvantage as it could prevent the researcher from hearing entire conversations or grasp the full significance of information exchange. He / She can not ask any questions insider to "qualify" what was said, or respond to other questions in their comments they have brought to mind "(Gold 1958). In addition to eavesdropping, a complete observer can collect data through video recording, audio recording, or photograph insiders (Adler & Adler, 1994), all of which have ethical implications. Given its limitations, Gold (1958) stated that complete observer is more often used as a subordinate role to other dominant. He admitted however that this function may important starting point for future observations and interactions when the researcher assumes other roles.
Observer as participant
This role as described in Gold (1958) and Pearsall (1970), includes more than observation of participation. The researcher who adopts this paper advances very slightly in their involvement in insider trading, while mostly involved in observation, he Or she can conduct brief interviews. Unlike the covert activity that is typical of complete observer in this paper, the researcher's identity can be more evident as it is known that several of the initiates. The researcher oriented "and" not cross into the domain of friendship "(Adler & Adler, 1994. P380)
Unique features for observation RESEARCH
The observation has some aspects that are unique to this research method, including:
– Training
– Access to and exit from the field or in and out of the study group
– Duration of time the field
– Sampling
– Technical Data Collection
TIPS TO MAKE THE OBSERVATION.
Consider carefully what kind of observation might be useful for investigation
What groups or situations would be relevant?
Is it possible and practical to watch them?
In the case of directed or participant observation?
What can you learn through observation?
Arrange for obsrvation to take place.
To request permission in advance if you wish to arrange a visit
Plan what day or days of observation will take place and how long it will last
Plan of titles to use for your notes on observation.
Decide exactly what you are trying to discover and resolve the appropriate headings to make notes under.
If that doing participant observation will have to decide if:
Remain hidden, do not tell anyone that is obsrving them.
Be open people who are watching Tham
Make observation
Make sure you are properly prepared with paper, pencil and a clear what you're looking for.
Be sure to make notes of the observation that is occurring, or immediately after, not to forget what happened.
Watch and listen very carefully
Remember not to try to influence the behavior of the people we're watching, so be careful when taking notes.
Analyze and write the results of his observation
Look through the notes and the work that you discovered
Enter your comments, including
How and why they planned the observation as it did
How was the observation including the problems that had to do
What he discovered and how this relates to other aspects of their research.
How to organize differently observation that would do it again.
Methods of observation and recording
DATA
As mentioned earlier observational studies may be distinguished by the manner in which observation is conducted and the data recorded. Two groups can be identified namely,
– Formal Technical Classification
– Informal Meeting of Technical Evaluation
A researcher has to determine which to use before the observation begins.
– Formal Technical Rating:
In formal rating scales, what we see is pre-determined and specified. therefore imposes an absolute
the structure and guidance on what they observe. It is only observable or overt behavior and also makes ignore all behaviors not included in the rating scales.
Rating scales have the advantage of providing specific information. The data are derived from them in demand "less is synthesized and organized by the investigator" (Adams and Sch Vanevelelt 1985). Moreover, its validity and reliability are much easier to establish more structured and better possibilities to determine the high level of reliabilite in the measurement.
The testimony of the scales formal qualification however, limiting the scope of the observed behavior. The formal rating scales are already popular in devices teacher training for the assessment of teaching practice of student teachers.
– Informal Meeting Technical Evaluation:
These effects are less structured to allow greater freedom of information recording. It is
note taking, the maintenance log and obtain information from an informant. This is more appropriate to the technique of participant observation. To his credit, informal rating scale could be high in the scope of conduct covered and information rich. However, the researcher has to organize and synthesize the data thus obtained can be cumbersome. Its main weakness lies in the difficulty of determining their reliability and validity, but not impossible.
The researcher / observer can carry out his work in various ways. You can interact with research subjects in the observation situation in varying degrees. The two important aspects of the process of collecting observational research data or not the researcher / observer research issues involved in the activities and whether or not research subjects are aware of being observed for research purposes. Based on these two criteria, the types of observations are
Validity and reliability
As is the case with entire investigation, the investigator must address issues of validity and reliability in our full article on the validity in qualitative research, Johnson (1997) defines validity as research that is "plausible credible, reliable and therefore defensible" and raises a number of strategies researchers can use to promote validity (P282). A threat to validity is the bias of the researchers that may result from selective observation, selective recording of information or the subjective interpretation of the situation. To address bias, researchers can use multiple monitors, the activity is engaged in self-critical (reflexivity), or look for negative cases "that refute () of researcher expectations and explanations" (Johnson, 1997 p.284, Adler & Adler, 1994) also Chapman used other research methods (1992 p13), which in their study included an interview guide.
Johnson classified validity and interpretation descriptive, and theoretical and the strategies proposed to promote every type of descriptive validity refers to the accuracy of the account as reported by researchers " (1997, P284). He suggested that "researchers triangulation, or using more than one investigator to collect and analyze data (P283). The validity of interpretation is "the accuracy of the facts" or "accurately represent the meaning attached by participants to what is being studying (P285, emphasis in original). Strategies to improve interpretive validity include participant feedback and the use of "inference descriptors low "(ie direct quotes) (P283, see also Adler & Adler, 1994). Theoretical Validity refers to" the degree to which a theoretical explanation developed from a research study fits the data and, therefore, is credible and defensible "(P286). To promote theoretical validity, Johnson suggested that the spend more time researcher in the field. In addition, he / she can also use what Johnson called "pattern matching" (P283), a process that involves "predicting a series of results that form a pattern and then determine the extent to which actual results fit the model" (P283). triangulation theory would allow the researcher to examine and explain the phenomenon from a different perspective. Investigator triangulation and the review could also help improve theoretical validity
The role has been defined as the characteristic posture (s) of researchers assume in their relationship "with the people they are studying (hereinafter referred to as "insiders"), Chapman, 1984, p.429
INTRODUCTION
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